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ConnectionsintheWorkplaceasaWayofAccumulatingSocialCapital…
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travelingtogether,etc.)(86).Today,sworkplaceprovidesmanywaysofbuildingand
strengtheningworkties,e.g.team-buildingeventsorspeciallyplannedinteriordesign.
Asaresult,co-workersformanetworkofmutualtrust,cooperationandobligation.
Networksarethebestformofinvestmentinsocialcapitalbecausethey“involve(almost
bydefinition)mutualobligations;theyarenotinterestingasmerezcontacts.
,Networks
ofcommunityengagementfostersturdynormsofreciprocity:I,lldothisforyounow,
intheexpectationthatyou(orperhapssomeoneelse)willreturnthefavor”(Putnam
2000,20).
Putnamintroducestwoconceptstightlyconnectedwithsocialcapital,namely
bondingandbridging.“Someformsofsocialcapitalare,bychoiceornecessity,inward-
lookingandtendtoreinforceexclusiveidentitiesandhomogeneousgroups”(22)
theyarecalledbonding(exclusive)andthesearefamilyandfriends,ethnicfraternal
organizations,church-basedwomen,sreadinggroups,andfashionablecountryclubs.
Teseties,alsocalledstrongties(Granovetter1973,Putnam2000,DreverandHof-
meister2008,WhiteandRyan2008)encouragereciprocity,solidaritywiththegroup
andprovidesupportofallkinds(psychologicalornancial).Bridging(inclusive)ties
are“outward-lookingandencompasspeopleacrossdiversesocialcleavages”(22),e.g.
civilrightsmovements,manyyouthservicegroupsandecumenicalorganizations.
Teyarealsocalledweakties(Granovetter1973,Putnam2000,DreverandHofmeis-
ter2008)andserveinformationexchangebetweendiferentgroups.Teyworkbest
whenoneseeksajoborpoliticalposition,sincebondingtiesoferonlypositionswithin
one,sownsocialgroup,probablyofthesamesocialstatus;bridgingtiescantakean
individualtoadiferent,newworld.“Bondingsocialcapital…isverygoodtozgetby,
,
butbridgingsocialcapitaliscrucialforzgettingahead,”(XavierdeSouzaBriggsqtd.
inPutnam2000,23).
Socialcapitalandimmigrants
Anenormousamountofresearchhasbeenconductedonsocialcapitalandmigrants.
Tiscoverssuchspheresasmigrationstrategies(chainmigration);adjustmenttothe
newenvironment(materialadjustment:ndingsettlementandemployment),morale
adjustment(homesickness,emotionaladjustment,e.g.satisfactionwiththedecision
aboutmigration,mistakemigration),formationofnewsocialnetworks(makingnew
friends,joininggroups)(Choldin1973,170),aswellascontactandrelationswith
peopleinthehomecountry.
Tekeyelementofmigrants,socialcapitalisanetwork.Itcanconnectmigrants
tonon-migrantsinternallyinthecountryofmigration,itcanalso“connectmigrants
andnon-migrantsacrosstimeandspace(Boyd1989,641)transnationally.Inboth
casesnetworksofersupportandhelp,buttheirbasicfunctionseemstobending
ajobfornewcomersorabetterjobforthosewhohavealreadysettled.Tisfunctionis
performedbestbyethnicenclaves:“smallenterprisesthatareownedby(self-employed)
membersofanethniccommunity.Here,thelaborforceisdrawnextensivelyfromthe
sameethniccommunityusingkin,friendshipandethnicties.Networksareaninte-