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Introduction:InPolandIdeasAlwaysCountedMost
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likethesaviorofhumanity;atothermomentsothergroupsmightmakethe
sameimpression.ButMarxismitselfteachesusthattheseperceptions,like
allothers,flowfromsocialhistory.Marxismcannotthereforeproduceauto-
maticanswerstothequestionofliberation;itisamethodofpoliticalthought,
notasubstituteforpoliticalthought.ThusKelles-Krauz,unlikeLuxemburg,
wasapoliticalthinker.Hedidnotrely,asdidshe,onthetworhetoricalweap-
onsofglobalabstractionandfaithinthemasses.
Insomeofhismostinterestingwork,Kelles-KrauzusedMarxistpremises
toarguethatthedevelopmentofmodernnationswastobeexpectedasacon-
sequenceofcapitalistindustrialization.Thisargument,whichLaskowskidoes
notmentionandwhichLuxemburgignored,becamesomethinglikeaconsen-
susamongstudentsofthequestionaboutacenturyafterthedisputebetween
LuxemburgandKelles-Krauzofthe1890sand1900s.WhereasLuxemburg
wasdoctrinaireonnationalquestions,Kelles-Krauzwasthedissenterwhenhe
claimedthatsocialistshadtothinkaboutthenationandconsideritasapoliti-
calreality.Hepredicted,correctly,thatUkrainianandJewishnationalidentity
wouldemergeonhistoricalPolishlands.
Thusthegloballevelofanalysis,whichLuxemburgfavored,wasnotinand
ofitselfaresolutiontoanything.Laskowskiiscorrectthatherresponsesto
whatshesawaslocalEuropeandeviationsallflowedfromherbasicconviction
thatallhistorywasglobal.Butglobalization,asKelles-Krauzargued,meantthe
spreadofallstylesofmodernpoliticsinvariouspermutations,includingthena-
tional.ThusLelewelcouldbethesourceofaversionofsocialismcharacteristic
ofleft-wingZionism.Butthiscouldnotbetheendofthestory.Left-wingZion-
ism,inPolandandtheninIsrael,wasalsoaformofnationalism.Thekibbutz
couldnotbringanidea,beitnostalgicorprogressive;itcouldonlysupplantand
inspireothersocialforms.ThemodernizationthatJewishsettlementbrought
totheMiddleEastacceleratednationalismgenerallyintheregion.Itwaspre-
ciselybecauseKelles-KrauzwasaMarxistpoliticalthinkerthathearguedinfa-
vorofgradualism;sincepoliticshasmanyandunpredictableparts,thebestthat
canbedoneistoimaginethenextstage.Histheoryofretrospectiverevolution,
theotherpartofhisbodyofworkthatLaskowskimentions,wasmostlikely
acontemplationpreciselyofLelewel.Inotherwords,agenealogyofthePolish
leftthatacceptsMarxistcategoriesandbeginsfromLelewelmightjustaseasily
passthroughKelles-KrauzasthroughLuxemburg;andinanyeventaprescrip-
tivehistoryofthePolishleftshouldprobablyconsiderKelles-Krauzonhisown
termsandnotjustfromLuxemburg’spolemicalperspective.
LikeDmowski,orforthatmatterlikeWielopolskiorSzaniawski,Luxem-
burgbasedherpoliticalhopesontheRussianEmpire.Likeadvocatesofcon-
servativeandnationalistpolitics,shehopedforanallianceofPolishandRussian
politicalforceswithintheboundariesoftheRussianEmpire.Herassumption
wasthattheRussianEmpirewasaspermanentasthecapitaliststageofhistory,
andwouldserveasabestpossibleincubatorforthesocialistrevolution.When
